Сельджукиды Рума
Рукн ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Сулайман-шах ибн Кутулмыш султан Рума 1077—1086
Дауд Кылыч Арслан ибн Сулайман-шах султан Рума 1092—1107
Малик-шах ибн Дауд султан Рума 1107—1116
Рукн ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Масуд ибн Дауд султан Рума 1116—1156
Изз ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кылыч Арслан ибн Масуд султан Рума 1156—1188
Рукн ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Сулайман-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Токата 1188—1196, султан Рума 1196—1204
Насир ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Бёркийарук-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Никсара 1188—
Мугис ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Абу-л-Харис Мухаммад Тогрул-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Эрзурума 1188—1225
Нур ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Султан-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Кайсери 1188—
Кутб ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Малик-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Сиваса 1188—
Муизз ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кайсар-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Малатьи 1188—
Санджар-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Эрегли 1188—
Арслан-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Нигде 1188—
Низам ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Аргун-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Амасьи 1188—
Мухйи ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Аргун-шах ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Анкары 1188—1202
Гийас ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кай Хусрав ибн Кылыч Арслан малик Коньи 1188—1192, 1196—1205, султан Рума 1192—1196, 1205—1210
Изз ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кылыч Арслан ибн Сулайман-шах султан Рума 1204—1205
Изз ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кай Кабус ибн Кай Хусрав султан Рума 1210—1219
Ала ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Абу-л-Фатх Кай Кубад ибн Кай Хусрав малик Токата 1205—, малик Анкары —1212, султан Рума 1219—1236
Рукн ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Джахан-шах ибн Тогрул-шах малик Эрзурума 1225—1230
Гийас ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кай Хусрав ибн Кай Кубад султан Рума 1236—1245
Изз ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кай Кабус ибн Кай Хусрав султан Рума 1245—1257
Рукн ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кылыч Арслан ибн Кай Хусрав султан Рума 1245—1249, 1249—1265
Ала ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кай Кубад ибн Кай Хусрав султан Рума 1245—1248, 1249—1257
Гийас ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кай Хусрав ибн Кылыч Арслан султан Рума 1265—1283
Гийас ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Масуд ибн Кай Кабус султан Рума 1283—1284, 1284—1293, 1294—1300, 1302—1304
Ала ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Кай Кубад ибн Фарамарз султан Рума 1284, 1293—1294, 1300—1302, 1304—1307
Гийас ад-Дунийа ва-д-Дин Масуд ибн Кай Кубад султан Рума 1307—1308
Quarrels over the sultanate
The state of the Ayyubid dynasty and its neighbors after the death of SaladinRather than establishing a centralized empire, Saladin had established hereditary ownership throughout his lands, dividing his empire among kinsmen, with family members receiving semi-autonomous fiefs and principalities.[3] Although these princes owed allegiance to the Ayyubid sultan, with their own territories, they were relatively independent.[37] Upon Saladin's death, az-Zahir took Aleppo from al-Adil per the arrangement and al-Aziz Uthman held Cairo, while his eldest son, al-Afdal retained Damascus—[38] which also included Palestine and much of Lebanon.[39] Al-Adil then acquired northern Mesopotamia, known as al-Jazira, where he held the Zengids of Mosul at bay. In 1193, Mas'ud of Mosul joined forces with Zangi of Sinjar and together the Zengid coalition moved to occupy as much of al-Jazira as possible. However, before any major results could be achieved, Mas'ud fell ill and returned to Mosul, and al-Adil then compelled Zangi to make a quick peace before the Zengids suffered territorial losses at the hands of the Ayyubids.[29] Al-Adil's son al-Mu'azzam took possession of Karak and Transjordan.[38]
Soon, however, Saladin's sons fell to squabbling over the division of the empire. Saladin had appointed al-Afdal the governorship of Damascus with the intention that his son should continue to see the city as his principal place of residence in order to emphasize the primacy of the jihad ("holy struggle") against the Crusader states. Al-Afdal, however, found that his attachment to Damascus contributed to his undoing. Several of his fathers subordinate emirs left the city for Cairo to lobby al-Aziz Uthman to oust him on claims he was inexperienced and had the intent to sweep out the old Ayyubid guard. Thus, in 1194, he openly demanded the sultanate—al-Adil encouraged him to act before al-Afdal's perceived incompetence put the Ayyubid empire in jeopardy. Al-Aziz Uthman's claim to the thrown was settled in a series of assaults on Damascus in 1196, forcing al-Afdal to leave for a less high-profile post at Salkhad. Al-Adil established himself in Damascus as a lieutenant of al-Aziz Uthman, but wielded much influence in the empire.[39]
When al-Aziz Uthman died in a hunting accident near Cairo, al-Afdal was again made sultan (although al-Aziz Uthman's son al-Mansur was the nominal ruler of Egypt), al-Adil having been absent in a campaign in the northeast. He returned and managed to occupy the Citadel of Damascus, but then faced a strong assault from the forces grouped under al-Afdal and his brother az-Zahir. These forces disintegrated under al-Afdal's leadership and in 1200, al-Adil returned to the offensive.[40] Upon Uthman's death, two clans within the empire opposed each other; the mamluks whom Shirkuh and Saladin had enlisted—the Asadiyya and Salahiyya. The latter backed al-Adil in his struggles against al-Afdal. With their support, al-Adil conquered Cairo in 1200,[41] and forced al-Afdal to accept internal banishment.[40] He proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria afterward and entrusted the governance of Damascus to al-Mu'azzam and al-Jazira to his other son al-Kamil.[41] Around 1200, a sharif ("tribal head") Qatada ibn Idris seized power in Mecca and was recognized as the emir of the city by al-Adil.[16]
Al-Afdal strove to retrieve Damascus one last time, but failed in doing so. Al-Adil entered the city in triumph in 1201.[40] Az-Zahir still held Aleppo and al-Afdal was given Samosata in Anatolia.[41] Now age 60, al-Adil's line rather than Saladin's would dominate the next 50 years of Ayyubid rule.[40] He redistributed his possessions between his sons: al-Kamil was to succeed him in Egypt, al-Ashraf received al-Jazira, and Awhad was given Diyar Bakr, but the latter territory shifted to al-Ashraf's domain after Awhad died.[41]
Crusader ships attacking the tower of Damietta in 1218Al-Adil aroused open hostility from the Hanbali "lobby" in Damascus for largely ignoring the Crusaders, having launched only one campaign against them. He felt that the Crusader army was invincible in a straight fight. Prolonged campaigns also involved the difficulties of maintaining a coherent Arab coalition. The trend under al-Adil was steady growth of the empire, mainly through the expansion of Ayyubid authority in al-Jazira and Armenia. The Abbasids eventually recognized al-Adil's role as sultan in 1207.[40] A Crusader military campaign was launched on November 3, 1217, beginning with an offensive towards Transjordan. Al-Mu'azzam urged al-Adil to launch a counter-attack, but he refused his son's proposal.[42] In 1218, the fortress of Damietta in the Nile Delta was besieged by the Crusaders. After two failed attempts, the fortress eventually capitulated on August 25. Six days later al-Adil died, reportedly of shock.[43]
Al-Kamil proclaimed himself sultan in Cairo, while his brother al-Mu'azzam claimed the throne in Damascus. Al-Kamil attempted to retake the fortress, but was forced back by John of Brienne. After learning of a conspiracy against him, he fled, leaving the Egyptian army leaderless. Panic ensued, but with the help of al-Mu'azzam, al-Kamil regrouped his forces. By then, however, the Crusaders had seized his camp. The Ayyubids offered to negotiate for the withdrawal from Damietta, offering the restoration of Palestine to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with the exception of the forts of Mont Real and Karak.[44] This was refused by the leader of the Fifth Crusade, Pelagius of Albano and in 1221, they were driven out of the Nile Delta after the Ayyubid victory at Mansura.[3]